5 Interesting Uses of Chlorine Dioxide + Safety, Side Effects

Chlorine dioxide is a strong anti-infectious agent. It is antibacterial, antiviral, and can help improve oral health. Read more to learn about the health benefits and side effects of chlorine dioxide.

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What is Chlorine Dioxide?

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a yellow-green gas that was discovered in . Since the early s, people have been using it as a disinfectant [1, 2].

Chlorine dioxide is an oxidant. This means that chlorine dioxide removes electrons from another compound during a chemical reaction. This activity makes it toxic to many bacteria and fungi [2, 3, 4].

Chlorine dioxide is considered potentially toxic to humans at concentrations higher than 0.8 mg/L. Water purification tablets containing chlorine dioxide are marketed to campers, hikers, and backpackers to sanitize fresh water from rivers or lakes; make sure to carefully follow the instructions on the package if you use these products, and never use more than the recommended quantity per volume.

Mechanism

Chlorine dioxide acts as an oxidizing agent (gains electrons during chemical reactions) and interacts with cell components [5].

By taking electrons from microbes, the microbe’s molecular bonds weaken and the cell breaks apart. This process alters the proteins involved in their structure and decreases enzyme function, thus resulting in the death of the microbe [5].

This attack on many proteins simultaneously prevents the microorganisms from mutating and developing resistance [6].

Uses of Chlorine Dioxide

1) Antimicrobial Activity

Chlorine dioxide is frequently used to sterilize water and make it safe to drink. The maximum safe limit for chlorine dioxide in drinking water, according to the EPA, is 0.8 mg/L [7].

Chlorine dioxide gas can go through bacterial cell membranes and cause cell death in the pH range of 3-9 [4, 8].

In lab tests, chlorine dioxide was more effective at inactivating fungal spores than chlorine. It inactivated fungal spores by damaging the cell wall and cell membrane, thus causing the leakage of cell substances and eventually, fungal death [9].

In another study, a chlorine dioxide solution reduced 98.2% of bacteria and fungi in a lab test (E. coli, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, listeria, salmonella, Candida albicans, etc) [3].

A Powerful Disinfectant

The antimicrobial properties of chlorine dioxide are used to disinfect food, surgical tools, and more [10, 11, 9].

Low concentrations of chlorine dioxide are effective in reducing E. coli present in water. Various chlorine dioxide products can help disinfect water and produce safe drinking water [12].

In a 30-month prospective study, chlorine dioxide-treated water in a hospital decreased Legionella bacteria counts. Additionally, there were no patients that acquired Legionnaires disease during the study [13].

The bacteria on vegetable seed sprouts can cause stomach problems and disease outbreaks. Chlorine dioxide treatment and dry heating eliminated E. coli on radish seeds without damaging the seeds. Thus, it can help with food safety [11].

Chlorine dioxide treated-water significantly reduced Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria counts on baby spinach. However, non-culturable cells (bacteria that do not grow or divide) were still present. The treatment did not affect the quality of the baby spinach, but it reduced its photosynthetic abilities [12].

In a pilot study, chlorine dioxide gas disinfected gastrointestinal endoscopes, an instrument used to look at the inside lining of the digestive tract. The gas completely inactivated bacterial cells and disinfected all endoscopes [10].

Improving Air Quality

Chlorine dioxide gas efficiently disinfected and improved air quality indoors after single (0.28L solution, 250 mg/L), double, and triple doses. All three doses reduced indoor bacteria and fungi concentrations, but the double and triple doses had significantly better antimicrobial effects [14].

In another study, a chlorine dioxide-based agent was more effective than hydrogen peroxide at killing bacteria that had enhanced resistance to chemical and radiation disinfection (B. pumilus SAFR-032 and Bacillus subtilis ATCC ). Chlorine dioxide can help sterilize peroxide- and UV-resistant spores in hospital environments [15].

In another study, chlorine dioxide decontaminated known pathogens that can cause infections in a hospital room. Although each hospital room had lower bacteria counts, 2 cleaning cycles failed to completely inactivate all harmful organisms [16].

Oral and Dental Health

In a week-long study (DB-RCT) of 15 subjects, a mouthwash containing chlorine dioxide decreased bad breath (more than the placebo). It also reduced the number of chemical compounds with distinct bad smells (hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, and dimethyl sulfide) [17].

The chlorine dioxide mouthwash also reduced plaque and bacteria that cause gum disease (Fusobacterium nucleatum) in saliva [17].

In another study (TB-RCT) of 25 healthy subjects, mouthwash containing chlorine dioxide was as effective as an antibacterial mouthwash (chlorhexidine). There was no significant difference in plaque concentration or bacteria count. Although the chlorhexidine mouthwash initially had a lower bacteria count, there was no statistically significant difference [18].

Chlorine dioxide may also help whiten teeth. It was faster at whitening cow teeth than hydrogen peroxide. However, since it has a low pH, long-term exposure may harm teeth [19].

A 5% chlorine dioxide solution can also help clean the mouth during root canals due to its antimicrobial properties [4].

Chlorine dioxide mouthwashes are available for purchase. If you use one, take special care not to swallow the solution, as the concentration of chlorine dioxide in these products is much higher than the threshold for safe consumption.

2) Antiviral Activity

Chlorine dioxide is also antiviral. It destroys the proteins on the outside of viruses and degrades the virus [20].

Chlorine dioxide gas is effective against [21]:

• Human influenza (IFV)
• Measles
• Human herpes (HHV)
• Human adenovirus (HAdVs)
• Influenza A (in mice) [20]

Chlorine dioxide solution also inactivated human and monkey rotaviruses (that cause diarrhea) and hepatitis A [22, 23].

Negative Effects of Chlorine Dioxide

1) Cell Damage & Neurotoxicity

Normally, exposure to low amounts of chlorine dioxide is safe for humans. In a study of 17 dialysis patients, 1 month of exposure to chlorine dioxide-treated water did not have any toxic effects or cause anemia (low red blood cell levels) [24].

However, in rats, chlorine dioxide gas altered the structure of blood cells and prevented DNA formation in several organs. The changes in blood cells caused mild hemolytic anemia, a condition in which blood cells are destroyed and removed before their normal lifespan is over [25].

Additionally, an oral dose of 14 mg in rats damaged proteins in their brain cells, demonstrating a potential for neurotoxicity [26].

2) Contamination

Chlorine dioxide products also tend to contain high levels of impurities (reactants with additional compounds). These products are useful for wastewater treatment but dangerous when in contact with humans or food [27].

Impurities are mainly caused by other chlorine compounds, such as chlorine and chloroxy anions (ClO2- or ClO3-). They can react with organic matter to form trihalomethane, a compound that causes cancer (carcinogen) [25].

Safety Data & Side Effects

There are only a few human studies available on the effects of chlorine dioxide.

People with G6PD deficiency may have a higher risk of developing anemia due to chlorite exposure from chlorine dioxide [24].

Safety

Chlorine dioxide is unstable as a gas and is explosive in concentrations greater than 10%. It can be ignited by almost any form of energy, including sunlight and heat [28, 29].

Chlorine dioxide is toxic and can burn or severely irritate the skin and eyes in high concentrations [30].

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration states that the highest exposure to chlorine dioxide in the air should be 0.1 ppm and 0.3 mg/m3 [31].

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Drinking water containing more chlorine dioxide than the toxic threshold (0.8 mg/L) may cause kidney damage [32].

Drug Interactions

Diclofenac is a drug that treats pain, arthritis, and migraines (NSAID). In water, chlorine dioxide can degrade diclofenac. While this is beneficial during water treatment (preventing trace amounts of drugs from persisting in drinking water), its effects on the human body are unknown [33].

Sources

Chlorine dioxide can be found in a gaseous, liquid, or solid state [34, 30, 35].

The best way to store chlorine dioxide is as a liquid/ dissolved gas at 4ºC. Chlorine dioxide cannot be stored for too long, because it slowly separates into chlorine and oxygen [36].

Miracle Mineral Solution

Miracle Mineral Solution is a product that contains sodium chlorite, which reacts with an acid (like lemon juice) to form chlorine dioxide. The creator claimed that it can cure AIDS, cancer, hepatitis, malaria, and autism [37].

If it sounds like snake oil to you, you’d be right. MMS is considered wildly unsafe and has been reported to cause [37]:

• Nausea
• Dehydration
• Severe vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Low blood pressure (hypotension)
• Death

In one case, a patient developed Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease after drinking an unknown amount of the miracle mineral solution. The solution triggered an inflammatory response and caused fever, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes [37].

There are many different solutions that you can use to treat water and remove contaminants within, which include everything from ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis to chemical disinfectants. Among the most effective disinfectants is chlorine dioxide, which has long been a popular solution for water treatment.

Chlorine dioxide is a type of chemical compound that’s comprised of a single chlorine atom as well as two oxygen atoms. When at room temperature, chlorine dioxide is a yellowish-green or reddish gas that can dissolve in water.

The many uses of chlorine dioxide include disinfecting drinking water, antimicrobial uses, commercial water treatment, medical applications, paper manufacturing, and food/beverage production. This article offer a detailed look at if chlorine dioxide is safe to use and what benefits it can have when it comes to water treatment.

Uses & Benefits

There are a wide range of ways in which chlorine dioxide can be used. Despite chlorine dioxide being a chemical compound that poses some issues when consumed at high amounts, it’s also a potent disinfectant that can remove certain contaminants that other treatment methods are unable to get rid of.

Chlorine is known to be used in every facet of water treatment, which includes industrial and recreational applications. Along with disinfecting drinking water, chlorine is also able to disinfect swimming pools and cooling towers.

Chlorine Dioxide as a Disinfectant

Chlorine dioxide is regularly used as a disinfectant throughout many applications and is the preferred choice in numerous scenarios. Systems that contain biofilms and surface germs can benefit the most from chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant. This chemical is able to get rid of biofilms and effectively inactivate germs by completely destroying cell walls.

The disinfection and oxidation capabilities that chlorine dioxide have are 100% independent from the water’s pH levels, which means that you can use chlorine to disinfect water even if it has pH levels of 5.0 or 9.0. Chlorine dioxide is able to properly disinfect water as a result of the oxidation process. The chemical compound consists of 19 distinct electrons and will only react with other substances that can give off one of their own electrons. Chlorine will then substitute a chlorine atom with the other substance.

The organic substances that are found in bacterial cells are known to react directly with chlorine dioxide, which results in certain cellular processes being interrupted. In fact, protein production is effectively prevented in this scenario. Once bacteria are properly eliminated, the chlorine dioxide will get into the cell wall to keep these issues at bay.

To eliminate viruses in the water, chlorine dioxide will react with a water-soluble substance known as peptone. In this situation, protein formation is prevented, which leads to the virus dying. Because of how chlorine dioxide work, it’s considered to be a more effective disinfectant for viruses and bacteria than ozone or chlorine.

Chlorine dioxide is also among the only disinfectants that have proven to be effective when used to eliminate Cryptosporidium and Giardia Lambia parasites, which are sometimes present in drinking water. When consumed, these parasites can lead to serious diseases. Many water treatment facilities will combine chlorine dioxide with ozone to make sure that all parasites in the water are eradicated.

Another notable advantage of using chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant is that it reacts directly with the cell wall, which means that the reaction doesn’t depend on contaminant concentration or reaction time. Even when a microorganism is inactive, chlorine dioxide can eliminate it. Because of this process, it’s impossible for a microorganism to develop a resistance against this chemical compound, which is why many consider it to be more effective than other water treatment solutions.

As mentioned previously, chlorine dioxide is able to be used against biofilm since the chemical compound can penetrate into the slime layers of various bacteria. Chlorine dioxide will then oxidize what’s known as the polysaccharide matrix, which is what keeps the biofilm together. This process causes the chlorine dioxide to be reduced into chlorite ions.

In the event that the biofilm begins to grow, the chlorite ions introduce an acid environment that causes the ions to form into chlorine dioxide that will repeat the process. Because of this chemical reaction, chlorine dioxide is among the more effective solutions for getting rid of biofilm.

When looking specifically at drinking water treatment, chlorine dioxide was initially used to get rid of inorganic components like iron and manganese. Any odors or tastes in the water could also be removed. It’s possible for chlorine dioxide to operate as an oxidizing agent as well as a disinfectant.

If chlorine dioxide is placed into the water before oxidation, the growth of bacteria and algae can be prevented. Any floating particles in the water will be oxidized, which improves coagulation and helps to remove any turbidity from the water. Many drinking water plants use chlorine dioxide to eliminate viruses and bacteria since chlorine dioxide can be active for 48 hours or more.

Food and Beverage Production

Even though chlorine dioxide is mainly used for water treatment purposes, it has several additional applications, one of which involves food and beverage production. When food or beverages are being produced, chlorine dioxide serves as a type of antimicrobial agent within the water, which is why this water is regularly used during poultry processing as well as to wash vegetables and fruit.

Paper Processing

Chlorine dioxide is a highly important chemical during paper processing. In this situation, chlorine dioxide can be used to process wood pulp, which involves cooking wood chips in chlorine dioxide solutions at elevated pressures and temperatures.

Medical Applications

Chlorine dioxide has several medical applications that it can be used for. As a gas in hospitals and similar healthcare environments, chlorine dioxide is able to sterilize lab and medical equipment alongside rooms, tools, and surfaces.

At the right levels, chlorine dioxide is effective at getting rid of the harmful Legionella bacteria, which can lead to the deadly Legionnaires’ disease. Keep in mind that chlorine dioxide isn’t considered to be a treatment or cure that can be administered for medical ailments.

Safety Information

Even though chlorine dioxide is regularly used to effectively disinfect drinking water, it must still be handled properly to ensure that no one becomes sick or injured. In its natural gaseous form, chlorine dioxide is hazardous, which is why it’s highly recommended that you wear respiratory protective equipment when handling chlorine gas.

This equipment must contain 30 minutes of compressed air. Every operator in the water treatment facility should wear rubber gloves, goggles, and a protective apron. An eye washing station should also be available in the vicinity. Even though chlorine dioxide is a hazardous gas, the majority of people won’t breathe in too much chlorine dioxide since it breaks down quickly when introduced to air.

The U.S. Occupation Safety and Hazard Administration (OSHA) regulates chlorine dioxide use in workplace air for anyone who’s tasked with using this chemical compound. This administration has created a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 0.1 parts per million for all workers who use chlorine dioxide in industrial applications.

Keep in mind that chlorine dioxide gas must always be made at the industrial location where it’s meant to be used. The EPA has set guidelines to make sure that chlorine dioxide and other byproducts don’t have high concentrations in drinking water.

FAQ

It’s common for people to have concerns about consuming high amounts of chlorine dioxide since it’s a chemical compound. Along with being hazardous at high levels, chlorine dioxide can also be somewhat corrosive when left in a source of water for an extended period of time.

How Is Chlorine Dioxide Used in Water Treatment?

Chlorine dioxide is primarily used in water treatment as a disinfectant, an oxidant, and a biocide. This chemical compound can perform all of these tasks at low concentrations. It doesn’t create much byproducts when compared to other solutions.

When introduced to water at the right concentrations, chlorine dioxide is able to eliminate viruses, bacteria, and additional microbes to prevent waterborne diseases. If the chemical compound remains at a gaseous solution, it’s much more soluble than chlorine and can be properly removed via aeration.

Is Chlorine Dioxide Corrosive?

If you use chlorine dioxide at a concentration that allows the chemical compound to disinfect water, it will only be slightly corrosive. As mentioned previously, chlorine dioxide is much more soluble when compared to chlorine, which reduces the corrosive effects of the chemical.

Does Chlorine Dioxide Remove Odor?

When introduced to water, chlorine dioxide should remove bad odors and tastes from water. It can also kill the bacteria and algae that produce these odors/tastes in the first place. Because of its potency, chlorine dioxide is commonly used in personal hygiene, dentistry, and mouthwash products.

Is ClO2 Toxic and Can It Be Stored Safely?

You can’t store chlorine dioxide as a gas since a risk of explosion occurs when concentrations become higher than 10%. If you store chlorine dioxide for a lengthy period of time, it will break down into the chlorite byproduct before eventually turning into chlorate. The chemical only separates into oxygen and chlorine when it’s in a gas phase.

When storing this chemical, it should be stored at concentrations of 0.3% ClO2. Make sure that the solution is kept far away from heat or light sources. If chlorine dioxide is stored in good conditions, it should remain soluble and stable.

Chlorine dioxide is among the most effective solutions for eliminating viruses, pathogens, and bacteria from water, which is why the majority of water treatment facilities and industrial plants use chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant. Since chlorine dioxide is hazardous as a gas, it must be handled properly before and while you’re using it.

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